The extended avian urban phenotype: anthropogenic solid waste pollution, nest design, and fitness

Solid waste pollution (garbage discarded by humans, such as plastic, metal, paper) has received increased attention given its importance as a global threat to biodiversity. Recent studies highlight how animals incorporate anthropogenic materials into their life-cycle, for example in avian nest construction. While increasingly monitored in natural areas, the influence of solid waste pollution on wildlife has been seldomexplored in the urban habitat. There is limited data on the relationship between anthropogenic solid waste pollution, nest design, and reproductive success in an urban context.We address this knowledge gap (i) by investigating the presence of environmental solid waste pollution in the breeding habitats of great tits Parus major and blue tits Cyanistes caeruleus reproducing in a gradient of urbanisation, and (ii) by quantifying (ii) the contribution of different anthropogenic materials in their nests. We further examine potential drivers of solid waste pollution by inferring three distinct properties of the urban space: environmental solid waste pollution on the ground, human presence, and the intensity of urbanisation (e.g impervious surfaces) in nestbox vicinity. Finally, (iii) we explore the relationship between anthropogenic nest materials and reproductive success. We found that environmental solid waste pollution was positively associated with human presence and urbanisation intensity. There was also a positive relationship between increased human presence and the amount of anthropogenicmaterials in great tit nests. Interestingly, in both species, anthropogenic nest materials covaried negatively with nest materials of animal origin (fur and feathers).We suggest that fur and feathers – key insulating materials in nest design – may be scarcer in areas with high levels of human presence, and are consequently replaced with anthropogenic nest materials. Finally, we report a negative relationship between anthropogenic nest materials and blue tit reproductive success, suggesting species-specific vulnerability of urban birds to solid waste pollution.Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange (NAWA) PPN/IWA/2019/1/00070 PPN/IWA/2019/1/00069Polish National Science Centre (NCN) 2014/14/E/NZ8/00386 2016/21/B/NZ8/03082Foundation for Polish Science (FNP) scholarship "START

How are Natura 2000 protected areas covering different components of avian diversity in Spain?

We are grateful to all ornithologists involved in fieldwork, data collection, and data entry. We would like to thank SEO/Birdlife for kindly allowing us to use their Spanish Atlas of Breeding Birds (Martí & del Moral 2003) and particularly J.C. del Moral, B. Molina, and V. Escandell for their help and patience. Finally, we thank anonymous reviewers for their careful reading of our manuscript and their useful suggestions, which helped us improve the text’s final version.Protected areas are a relevant conservation tool at our disposal, especially for developing management strategies of natural habitats. However, explicit tests at large spatial scales about its effectivity protecting different components of biodiversity are still rare. This study explored the spatial matching between the distribution of three components of avian diversity (taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic metrics) and the network of Natura 2000 protected areas in Spain, the EU country with the most extensive terrestrial coverage. Overall, the spatial distribution of taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity was slightly spatially congruent, matching with protected areas. However, each avian diversity metric showed differences in the arrangement of spatial clusters, also regarding the environment type. Species richness was higher in forests while it was lower in orchards, mixed environments, and arable lands. Functional dispersion was higher in forest and arable lands, while it was lower in wetlands. In contrast, the highest phylogenetic diversity was associated with wetlands and water bodies, with shrublands showing the lowest levels for this metric. All three avian diversity metrics were overall higher within than outside the Natura 2000 network. The species richness was higher in areas simultaneously protected by the Habitat and Birds Directives. Functional dispersion was higher in protected areas designed under the Birds Directive. Finally, the evolutionary uniqueness was well represented in all protected areas, although areas designed under Birds Directive showed the higher values for this metric. The presence of spatial mismatch among avian diversity components suggests the importance of considering taxonomic, functional, and evolutionary metrics simultaneously for a better spatial prioritisation in conservation planning

Effects of light and noise pollution on avian communities of European cities are correlated with the species’ diet

Urbanization affects avian community composition in European cities, increasing biotic homogenization. Anthropic pollution (such as light at night and noise) is among the most important drivers shaping bird use in urban areas, where bird species are mainly attracted by urban greenery. In this study, we collected data on 127 breeding bird species at 1349 point counts distributed along a gradient of urbanization in fourteen different European cities. The main aim was to explore the effects of anthropic pollution and city characteristics, on shaping the avian communities, regarding species’ diet composition. The green cover of urban areas increased the number of insectivorous and omnivorous bird species, while slightly decreasing the overall diet heterogeneity of the avian communities. The green heterogeneity—a measure of evenness considering the relative coverage of grass, shrubs and trees—was positively correlated with the richness of granivorous, insectivorous, and omnivorous species, increasing the level of diet heterogeneity in the assemblages. Additionally, the effects of light pollution on avian communities were associated with the species’ diet. Overall, light pollution negatively affected insectivorous and omnivorous bird species while not affecting granivorous species. The noise pollution, in contrast, was not significantly associated with changes in species assemblages. Our results offer some tips to urban planners, managers, and ecologists, in the challenge of producing more eco-friendly cities for the future.Czech Science Foundation GAČR (Project Number 18-16738S)The Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (PID2019-107423GA-I00/SRA State Research Agency/10.13039/501100011033)

Spatial Overlap and Habitat Selection of Corvid Species in European Cities

Understanding habitat and spatial overlap in sympatric species of urban areas would aid in predicting species and community modifications in response to global change. Habitat overlap has been widely investigated for specialist species but neglected for generalists living in urban settings. Many corvid species are generalists and are adapted to urban areas. This work aimed to determine the urban habitat requirements and spatial overlap of five corvid species in sixteen European cities during the breeding season. All five studied corvid species had high overlap in their habitat selection while still having particular tendencies. We found three species, the Carrion/Hooded Crow, Rook, and Eurasian Magpie, selected open habitats. TheWestern Jackdaw avoided areas with bare soil cover, and the Eurasian Jay chose more forested areas. The species with similar habitat selection also had congruent spatial distributions. Our results indicate that although the corvids had some tendencies regarding habitat selection, as generalists, they still tolerated a wide range of urban habitats, which resulted in high overlap in their habitat niches and spatial distributions.Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (PID2019-107423GA-I00/SRA (State Research Agency/10.13039/501100011033)

Migration behavior and performance of the great spotted cuckoo (Clamator glandarius)

The study of brood parasitism has traditionally been focused on the breeding period, but recent evidence suggests that it urgently needs a new spatio-temporal perspective to explore novel avenues on brood parasite-host co-evolutionary interactions. Many brood parasites are migrants, but their ecology outside their short breeding season is poorly known. The great spotted cuckoo (Clamator glandarius) is one of the classical models in the study of brood parasitism, however, there is very little information on its migratory strategy, route and wintering grounds. Furthermore, there is no previous information on the geographical distribution of mortality and its causes in this species; information that is critical to understand the fluctuations in cuckoo populations and detect potential conservation risks. Using satellite tracking technology, we provide novel insight into the migratory behavior and performance of the great spotted cuckoo. We found individuals from southern Spain to be long-distance nocturnal migrants that use the East Atlantic Flyway for both post and pre-breeding migration, and that winter in the western Sahel. We found evidence of individual variation in their migration route, particularly regarding their post-breeding behavior in Spain. Our study also suggests that the south of Morocco is the most dangerous area due to a large number of deaths during the post-breeding migratory period. Furthermore, we found that natural predation seems to be the main cause of death, probably due to raptors, although human activities (i.e. hunting) could also played a role in the southern Mediterranean shore. Our study offers novel findings and challenges traditional ideas on the ecology of this species providing a good example of how the new spatio-temporal perspective can expand our knowledge on brood parasites.This study was partially funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad/ FEDER (research projects CGL2011-25634/BOS and CGL2017-89338-P to M.S.)

Urbanisation and nest building in birds: a review of threats and opportunities

SJR would like to thank his undergraduate (Connor Barnes, Clare Davies, Emily Elwell, Corrie Grafton, Jacob Haddon, Claire Herlihy, Derek Law, Eleanor Leanne, Holly Mynott, Penny-Serena Pratt, Anna Smith, Peter Tasker, Alison Wildgoose, Amy Williams and Daniel Woodward) and postgraduate (Richard Bufton, Dan Hunt, Victoria Pattison-Willits and Jen Smith) ‘nest’ students, and Charles Deeming, who have all provided new insights about urban nests over the last few years. MCM thanks Charles Deeming, Tom Martin, Bret Tobalske and Blair Wolf for useful discussions on the topic of urban nesting birds. PS would like to thank the participants of the ‘Human-Raptor Interactions—From Conservation Priorities to Conflict Mitigation’ symposium, Arjun Amar, Daniel Berkowic, Shane McPherson and Steve Redpath for the useful discussions on the topic of urban conservation regarding human–wildlife conflicts. JDI-Á would like to thank Olivia Sanllorente for providing interesting discussions on the topic and her constant support. Finally, we all thank Dan Chamberlain and an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments that improved the manuscript significantly.The world is urbanising rapidly, and it is predicted that by 2050, 66% of the global human population will be living in urban areas. Urbanisation is characterised by land-use changes such as increased residential housing, business development and transport infrastructure, resulting in habitat loss and fragmentation. Over the past two decades, interest has grown in how urbanisation influences fundamental aspects of avian biology such as life-history strategies, survival, breeding performance, behaviour and individual health. Here, we review current knowledge on how urbanisation influences the nesting biology of birds, which determines important fitness-associated processes such as nest predation and community assembly. We identify three major research areas: (i) nest sites of birds in urban areas, (ii) the composition of their nests, and (iii) how these aspects of their nesting biology influence their persistence (and therefore conservation efforts) in urban areas. We show that birds inhabiting urban areas nest in a wide variety of locations, some beneficial through exploitation of otherwise relatively empty avian ecological niches, but others detrimental when birds breed in ecological traps. We describe urban-associated changes in nesting materials such as plastic and cigarette butts, and discuss several functional hypotheses that propose the adaptive value and potential costs of this new nesting strategy. Urban areas provide a relatively new habitat in which to conserve birds, and we show that nestboxes and other artificial nest sites can be used successfully to conserve some, but not all, bird species. Finally, we identify those subject areas that warrant further research attention in the hope of advancing our understanding of the nesting biology of birds in urban areas

Territoriality and variation in home range size through the entire annual range of migratory great spotted cuckoos (Clamator glandarius)

Supplementary information accompanies this paper at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41943-2.We would like to thank Juan José Castro for his help capturing cuckoos in Spain. Marco van der Velde provided excellent support for the lab analyses regarding sex determination of cuckoos. Two anonymous reviewers provided useful comments that helped to improve our manuscript.Variation in home range size throughout the year and its causes are not well understood yet. Migratory brood parasites offer a unique opportunity to incorporate this spatio-temporal dimension into the study of the factors regulating home range dynamics. Using satellite transmitters, we tracked sixteen migratory great spotted cuckoos (Clamator glandarius) of both sexes for up to three years. We constructed home ranges in all major staging areas, from the Spanish breeding areas to the African wintering grounds, analyzed their temporal and geographical variation and investigated their main potential determinants (e.g. food and host availability). We found that home ranges were significantly larger in the breeding area compared to non-breeding areas. Using NDVI as a proxy for food availability, we showed that breeding area home ranges have significantly lower food availability per km2 than home ranges elsewhere which could explain why cuckoos use alternative areas with higher food availability before initiating migration. We also found some evidence for sex differences. Additionally, we found no indications of territoriality in this species, providing novel information into the current debate on brood parasite territoriality. Overall, food availability seems to be an important factor regulating home range dynamics and influencing migratory patterns throughout the year in great spotted cuckoos.This study was partially funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad/FEDER (research projects CGL2011-25634/BOS and CGL2017- 89338-P)

The Virtual Museum of Zoology of the University of Granada and the acquisition of practical knowledge by students

Durante los cursos académicos 2008-2012, en el Departamento de Zoología de la Universidad de Granada (UGR), se implantó una nueva herramienta didáctica: se llevó a cabo la creación de un Museo Virtual de Zoología, que consistió en la digitalización del material para prácticas ya existente en el citado Departamento, perteneciente a una colección histórica de animales naturalizados y conservados. El material digitalizado incluyó tanto imágenes de animales de la colección, como al natural, así como información básica de los mismos (p. ej.: encuadre taxonómico, hábitats y modos de vida). Esta información se puso a disposición de los alumnos de las asignaturas de Zoología, tanto de Ciencias Ambientales como de Biología, a través de una página Web gratuita. Este museo complementa la colección de animales existente previamente en el Departamento, y que también está a disposición de los alumnos para su consulta. Para conocer la efectividad de esta nueva herramienta, hemos encuestado al profesorado de varias universidades españolas y al alumnado de la Universidad de Granada sobre el grado de utilización e idoneidad del museo, y comparado los porcentajes de alumnos presentados al examen de prácticas y resultados de las notas entre el último curso sin museo (2008-2009) y el primero que lo tuvo a su disposición (2011-2012). Presentamos los resultados en este estudio. El Museo Virtual de Zoología es gratuito y está disposición de cualquier Centro/personal docente que quiera hacer uso del mismo, además del público en general. Ponemos de manifiesto la importancia de la creación de herramientas virtuales de este tipo para la mejora de la docencia práctica en las asignaturas sobre Historia Natural de los seres vivos.The Department of Zoology of the University of Granada (UGR) introduced a new educational tool between 2008-2012: the Virtual Museum of Zoology. This tool was created mainly with the digitalization of the historical collection of naturalized and preserved animals of the department. The tool also included images of animals in their natural habitats and basic information (e.g. taxonomical classification, habitat and feeding habits). This information was included in a free webpage for its use by the students of Zoology of Environmental Sciences and Biology Degrees. To evaluate the effectiveness of this new tool, we poll for the opinion of Zoology teachers of Spanish universities and for the level of utilization and suitability of the museum by Zoology students of the University of Granada. In addition, we compared the percentage of students presented to the tests and their results between the previous and subsequent year to the introduction of this tool. We present these results in this study. The Virtual Museum of Zoology is free to use by any student, teacher or institution. We highlight the importance of these virtual tools for the improvement of Natural History practical teaching

Functional explanation of extreme hatching asynchrony: Male Manipulation Hypothesis

Hatching asynchrony in birds is considered an adaptation to facilitate brood reduction because under conditions of food scarcity, the smallest nestling usually dies soon after hatching, thereby minimizing parental effort. However, in species with extreme hatching asynchrony, the last hatchlings paradoxically experience a very low probability of survival and death can take so long that it can hardly be considered an adaptation. Here, we propose and experimentally tested a new adaptive hypothesis explaining the brood reduction paradox, namely the “Male Manipulation Hypothesis”. Our hypothesis suggests that by inducing asynchronous hatching, females increase the feeding requirements of the brood, which will induce males to increase provisioning effort. In addition, females may extend the period of male manipulation by feeding the smallest nestling just enough to sustain life. Our study showed that male common blackbirds (Turdus merula) increased their effort (i.e., number of food items per hour) in experimental asynchronous broods compared to synchronous broods, while females reduced their contribution, as predicted by the hypothesis